Office of the Surgeon General
Office of the Surgeon General U.S. Department of Health & Human Services Office of the Surgeon General Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration


  •  Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General 1999.
  •  Mental Health: Culture,
    Race, Ethnicity - Supplement
  •  Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General
  •  Surgeon General's Conference on Children's Mental Health
  •  Other Surgeon General Reports
  •  Office of the U.S. Surgeon General
  •  Return to Surgeon General Reports Homepage

  • Line

    CHAPTER 3

    Mental Health Care for African Americans

    References

    Akutsu, P. D., Snowden, L. R., & Organista, K. C. (1996). Referral patterns to ethnic-specific and mainstream mental health programs for Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 56–64.

    Altshuler, S. (1998). Child well-being in kinship foster care: Similar to, or different from, non-related foster care? Children and Youth Services Review, 20, 369–388.

    American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Baker, F. M. (1990). Black youth suicide: Literature review with a focus on prevention. Journal of the National Medical Association, 82, 495–507.

    Baker, F. M., & Bell, C. C. (1999). Issues in the psychiatric treatment of African Americans. Psychiatric Services, 50, 362–368.

    Baker, F. M., Stokes-Thompson, J., Davis, O. A., Gonzo, R., & Hishinuma, E. S. (1999). Two-year outcomes of psychosocial rehabilitation of black clients with chronic mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 50, 535–539.

    Barrett, D. F., Anolik, I., & Abramson, F. H. (1992, August). The 1990 Census shelter and street night enumeration. Paper presented at the American Statistical Association Annual Meetings, Boston, MA.

    Becerra, R. M., & Inlehart, A. P. (1995). Folk medicine use: Diverse populations in a metropolitan area. Social Work in Health Care, 21, 37–52.

    Bell, C.C. (1997). Stress-related disorders in African American children. Journal of the National Medical Association, 89, 335–340

    Bell, C.C., Dixie-Bell, D. D., & Thompson, B. (1986). Further studies on the prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects. Journal of the National Medical Association, 78, 649–659.

    Bell, C.C., & Fink, P. J. (2000). Prevention of violence. In C. Bell (Ed.), Psychiatric aspects of violence: Issues in prevention and treatment (New Directions for Mental Health Services, 86). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

    Bell, C.C., Shakoor, B., Thompson, B., Dew, D., Hughley, E., Mays, R., & Shorter-Gooden, K. (1984). Prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects. Journal of the National Medical Association, 76, 501-508.

    Berrick, J., Barth, R., & Needell, B. A. (1994). Comparison of kinship foster homes and foster family homes: Implications for kinship foster care as family preservation. Children and Youth Services Review, 16, 33–64.

    Black, B. S., Rabins, P. V., German, P., McGuire, M., & Roca, R. (1997). Need and unmet need for mental health care among elderly public housing residents. The Gerontologist, 37, 717–728.

    Blazer, D. G., Hybels, C. F., Simonsick, E. M., & Hanlon, J. T. (2000). Marked differences in antidepressant use by race in an elderly community sample: 1986–1996. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1089–1094.

    Blazer, D. G., Landerman, L. R., Hays, J. C., Simonsick, E. M., & Saunders, W. B. (1998). Symptoms of depression among community-dwelling elderly African-American adults. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1311–1320.

    Borduin, C. M., Mann, B. J., Cone, L. T ., Henggeler, S. W., Fucci, B. R., Blaske, D. M., & Williams, R. A. (1995). Multisystemic treatment of serious juvenile offenders: Long-term prevention of criminality and violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 569–578.

    Borowsky, S. J., Rubenstein, L. V., Meredith, L. S., Camp, P., Jackson-Triche, M., & Wells, K. B. (2000). Who is at risk of nondetection of mental health problems in primary care? Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15, 381–388.

    Bradford, L. D., Gaedigk, A., & Leeder, J. S. (1998). High frequency of CYP2D6 poor and “intermediate” metabolizers in black populations: A review and preliminary data. Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 34, 797-804.

    Breakey, W. R., Fischer, P. J., Kramer, M., Nestadt, G., Romanoski, A. J., Ross, A., Royall, R. M., & Stine, O. (1989). Health and mental health problems of homeless men and women in Baltimore . Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 1352–1357.

    Breaux, C., & Ryujin, D. (1999). Use of mental health services by ethnically diverse groups within the United States. The Clinical Psychologist, 52, 4–15.

    Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Howard, D. C., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, M. A. (1998). Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in the community. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 626–632.

    Broman, C. L. (1996). Coping with personal problems. In H. W. Neighbors & J. S. Jackson (Eds.), Mental health in black America (pp. 117–129). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Brown, C., Shear, M. K., Schulberg, H. C., & Madonia, M. J. (1999). Anxiety disorders among African-American and white primary medical care patients. Psychiatric Services, 50, 407–409.

    Brown, E. R., Ojeda, V. D., Wyn, R., & Levan, R. (2000). Racial and ethnic disparities in access to health insurance and health care. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Health Policy Research and The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.

    Brown, R. T., & Sexson, S. B. (1988). A controlled trial of methylphenidate in black adolescents. Clinical Pediatrics, 27, 74–81.

    Bui, K. V., & Takeuchi, D. L. (1992). Ethnic minority adolescents and the use of community mental health care services. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 403–417.

    Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1997). Criminal victimization 1997: Changes 1996–97 with trends 1993–1997. Washington, DC: Author.

    Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1998). Probation and parole populations, 1997. Washington, DC: Author.

    Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1999). The sourcebook of criminal justice statistics. Washington, DC: Author.

    Bussing, R., Schoenberg, N. E., Rogers, K. M., Zima, B. T., & Angus, S. (1998). Explanatory Models of ADHD: Do they differ by ethnicity, child gender, or treatment status? Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 6, 233–242.

    Cauce, A. M., Morgan, C. J., Wagner, V., Moore, E., Sy, J., Wurzbacher, K., Weeden, K., Tomlin, S., & Blanchard, T. (1994). Effectiveness of intensive case management for homeless adolescents: Results of a 3-month follow-up. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 2, 219–227.

    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Suicide among black youths—United States, 1980–1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47, 193–195.

    Chabra, A., Chavez, G. F., Harris, E. S., & Shah, R. (1999). Hospitalization for mental illness in adolescents: Risk groups and impact on the health care system. Journal of Adolescent Health, 24, 349–356.

    Chambless, D. L., & Williams, K. E. (1995). A preliminary study of the effects of exposure in vivo for African Americans with agoraphobia. Behavior Therapy, 26, 501–515.

    Chow, J., Snowden, L. R., & McConnell, W. (in press). A confirmatory factor analysis of the BASIS–32 in racial and ethnic samples. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research.

    Chung, H., Mahler, J. C., & Kakuma, T. (1995). Racial differences in treatment of psychiatric in clients. Psychiatric Services, 46, 586–591.

    Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.

    Class, C. A., Unverzagt, F. W., Gao, S., Hall, K. S., Baiyewu, O., & Hendrie, H. C. (1996). Psychiatric disorders in African American nursing home residents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 677–681.

    Cooper, C. R., & Denner, J. (1998). Theories linking culture and psychopathology: Universal and community-specific processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 559–584.

    Cooper-Patrick, L., Crum, R. M., & Ford, D. E. (1994). Characteristics of patients with major depression who received care in general medical and specialty mental health settings. Medical Care, 32, 15–24.

    Cooper-Patrick, L., Gallo, J. J., Gonzales, J .J., Vu, H. T., Powe, N. R., Nelson, C., Ford, D .E. (1999). Race, gender, and partnership in the patient–physician relationship. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 583–589.

    Cooper-Patrick, L., Gallo, J. J., Powe, N. R., Steinwachs, D. M., Eaton, W. W., & Ford, D. E. (1999). Mental health service utilization by African Americans and whites: The Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area follow-up. Medical Care, 37, 1034–1045.

    Cooper-Patrick, L., Powe, N. R., Jenckes, M. W., Gonzales, J. J., Levine, D. M., Ford, D. E. (1997). Identification of patient attitudes and preferences regarding treatment for depression. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 12, 431–438.

    Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Burns, B. J., Stangl, D. K., Tweed, D. L., Erkanli, A., Worthman, C. M. (1996). The Great Smoky Mountains study of youth. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1129–1136.

    Costello, E. J., Costello, A. J., Edelbrock, C., Burns, B. J., Dulcan, M. K., Brent, D., & Janiszewski, S. (1988). Psychiatric disorders in primary care: Prevalence and risk factors. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 107–1116.

    Costello, E. J., Farmer, E. M., Angold, A., Barns, B. J., & Erkanli, A. (1997). Psychiatric disorders among American Indian and white youth in Appalachian Mountains study. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 827–832.

    Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self esteem: The self protective properties of stigma. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 608–630.

    Cuffe, S. P., Waller, J. L., Cuccaro, M. L., Pumariega, A. J., & Garrison, C. Z. (1995). Race and gender differences in the treatment of psychiatric disorders in young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1536–1543.

    Cunningham, P. J., Freiman, M. P. (1996). Determinants of ambulatory mental health service use for school-age children and adolescents. Mental Health Services Research, 31, 409–427.

    Curtin, P. D. (1969). The Atlantic Slave Trade. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.

    Davidson, J. R. T., Rampes, H., Eisen, M., Fisher, P., Smith, R. D., Malik, M. (1998). Psychiatric disorders in primary care patients receiving complementary medical treatments. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 39,16–20.

    Druss, B. G., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2000). Use of practitioner-based complementary therapies by persons reporting mental conditions in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 708.

    Eastham, J. H., & Jeste, D. V. (1996). Differentiating behavioral disturbances of dementia from drug side effects. International Psychogeriatrics, 8, (Suppl. 3), 429–434.

    Eisenberg, D. M., Davis, R. B., Ettner, S. L., Appel, S., Wilkey, S., Van Rompay, M., & Kessler, R. C. (1998). Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990–1997: Results of a follow-up national survey. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1569–1575.

    Elder, N. C., Gillcrist, A., & Minz, R. (1997). Use of alternative health care by family practice patients. Archives of Family Medicine, 6, 181–184.

    Fairbank, J. A., Friedman, M. J., & Southwick, S. (2001). Veterans of armed conflicts. In E. Gerrity, T. M. Keane, & F. Tuma (Eds.), The mental health consequences of torture. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Feitel, B., Margetson, N., Chamas, R. & Lipman, C. (1992). Psychosocial background and behavioral and emotional disorders of homeless and runaway youth. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43, 155–159.

    Firestone, B. (1990). Information packet on use of mental health services by children and adolescents. Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services Survey and Analysis Branch.

    Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424–430.

    Fox, J., Merwin, E., & Blank, M. (1995). De facto mental health services in the rural south. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 6, 434–468.

    Frable, D. E. S. (1997). Gender, racial, ethnic, sexual, and class identities. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 139–162.

    Frate, D. A., Croom, E. M., Frate, J. B., Jergens, J. P., & Meydrech, E. F. (1995). Self-treatment with herbal and other plant-derived remedies—rural Mississippi, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44, 204–207.

    Friedman, S., Paradis, C. M., & Hatch, M. (1994). Characteristics of African-American and white patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45, 798–803.

    Gallo, J. J., Cooper-Patrick, L., & Lesikar, S. (1998). Depressive symptoms of whites and African Americans aged 60 years and older. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 53B, P277–P286.

    Garland, A. F., Hough, R. C., McCabe, K. M., Yeh, M., Wood, P. A., Aarons, G.A. (2001). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in youths across five sectors of care. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 409–418.

    Gibbs, J. T., & Hines, A.M. (1989). Factors related to sex differences in suicidal behavior among black youth: Implications for intervention and research. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4, 152–172.

    Gladstein, J., Rusonis, F. J., & Heald, F. P. (1992). A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths’ exposure to violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 275–280.

    Glazer, W. M., Morgenstern, H., & Doucette, J. (1994). Race and tardive dyskinesia in a community mental health center outpatient population. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45, 38–42.

    Gray-Little, B., & Hafdahl, A. R. (2000). Factors influencing racial comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 26–54.

    Griffith, E. E. H., & Bell, C. C. (1989). Recent trends in suicide and homicide among blacks. Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 2265–2269.

    Halfon, N., Berkowitz, G. & Klee, L. (1992). Mental health service utilization by children in foster care in California. Pediatrics, 89, 1238–1244.

    Hall, M., Bromberger, J., & Matthews, K. (1999). Socio-economic status as a correlate of sleep in African-American and Caucasian women. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 896, 427–430.

    Hatchett, S. J., & Jackson, J. S. (1993). African American extended kin systems: An assessment. In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Family ethnicity: strength in diversity (pp. 90–108). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Healey, J. F. (1995). Race, ethnicity, gender, and class. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

    Henry, B. W., Overall, J. E., & Markette, J. R. (1971). Comparison of major drug therapies for alleviation of anxiety and depression. Diseases of the Nervous System, 32, 655–667.

    Heurtin-Roberts, S., Snowden, L., & Miller, L. (1997). Expressions of anxiety in African Americans: Ethnography and the Epidemiological Catchment Area studies. Cultural Medical Psychiatry, 21, 337–363.

    Holzer, C. E., Goldsmith, H .F., & Ciarlo, J. A. (1998). Effects of rural-urban county type on the availability of health and mental health care providers. In R. W. Manderscheid & M. J. Henderson (Eds.), Mental health, United States, Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services.

    Hu, T. W., Snowden, L. R., Jerrell, J. M., & Nguyen, T. D. (1991). Ethnic populations in public mental health: Services choice and level of use. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 1429–1434.

    Husaini, B. A. (1997). Predictors of depression among the elderly: Racial differences over time. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 48–58.

    Jencks, C. (1994). The Homeless. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Jenkins, E. J., & Bell, C. C. (1997). Exposure and response to community violence among children and adolescents. In J. Osofsky (Ed.), Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press.

    Jenkins, E. J., Bell, C. C., Taylor, J., & Walker, D. (1989). Circumstances of sexual and physical victimization of black psychiatric outpatients. Journal of the National Medical Association, 81, 246–252.

    Jeste, D. V., Lindamer, L. A., Evans, J., & Lacro, J. P. (1996). Relationship of ethnicity and gender to schizophrenia and pharmacology of neuroleptics. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 32, 243–251.

    Joe, S., & Kaplan, M. S. (2001). Suicide among African American men. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 31, 106–121.

    Jordan, B. K., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., & Caddell, J. M. (1996). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among incarcerated women II: Convicted felons entering prison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 514–519.

    Kass, B., Weinick, R., & Monheit, A. (1999, February). Racial and Ethnic Differences in Health, MEPS Chartbook No. 2. Medical Expenditure Survey of the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

    Keith, V. M. (2000). A profile of African Americans’ health care. In C. Hogue, M.A. Hargreaves, & K. S. Collins (Eds.), Minority health in America (pp. 47–76). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P. A., Zhao, S., Leaf, P. J., Kouzis, A. C., Bruce, M. L., Freidman, R. L., Grosser, R. C., Kennedy, C., Narrow, W. E., Kuehnel, T. G., Laska, E. M., Manderscheid, R. W., Rosenheck, R. A., Santoni, T. W., & Schneier, M. (1996). The 12-month prevalence and correlates of serious mental illness (SMI). In R. W. Manderscheid & M. A. Sonnenschein (Eds.), Mental health, United States. Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services.

    Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshelman, S., Wittchen, H. U., & Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM–III–R disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.

    Koegel, P., Burnam, M. A., & Farr, R. K. (1988). The prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders among homeless individuals in the inner city of Los Angeles. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1085–1092.

    Komaromy, M., Grumbach, K., Drake, M., Vrazizan, K., & Lurie, N. (1996). The role of black and Hispanic physicians in providing health care for underserved populations. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 305–310.

    Koss-Chioino, J. D. (2000). Traditional and folk approaches among ethnic minorities. In J. F. Aponte & J. Wohl (Eds.), Psychological Intervention and Cultural Diversity. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Kulka, R. A., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. E., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., & Weiss, D. S. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Landsverk, J., Davis, I, Ganger, W., Newton, R., & Johnson, I. (1996). Impact of child psychosocial functioning on reunification from out-of-home placement. Children and Youth Services Review, 18, 4–5.

    Lewin, M. E., & Altman, S. (Eds.). (2000). America’s health care safety net: Intact but endangered. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Leginski, W. A., Manderscheid, R. W., & Henderson, P. R. (1990). Clients served in State mental hospitals: Results from a longitudinal database. In R. W. Manderscheid & M. A. Sonnenheim (Eds.), Mental health, United States. Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services.

    Lichtenberg, P. A., Kimbarow, M. L., Morris, P., & Vangel, S. J. (1996). Behavioral treatment of depression in predominantly African-American medical clients. Clinical Gerontologist, 17, 15–33.

    Lin, K. M., Cheung, F., Smith, M., & Poland, R. E. (1997). The use of psychotropic medications in working with Asian patients. In E. Lee (Ed.), Working with Asian Americans: A guide for clinicians (pp. 388–399). New York: Guilford Press.

    Livingston, R. L., Zucker, D. K., Isenberg, K., & Wetzel, R. D. (1983). Tricyclic antidepressants and delirium. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 44, 173–176.

    Marcolin, M. A. (1991). The prognosis of schizophrenia across cultures. Ethnicity & Disease, 1, 99–104.

    Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Boston: Harvard University Press.

    McBean, A. M., & Gornick, M. (1994). Differences by races in the rates of procedures performed in hospitals for Medicare beneficiaries. Health Care Financing Review, 15, 77–90.

    McCabe, K. M., Clark, R., & Barnett, D. (1999). Family protective factors among urban African American youth. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 137–150.

    McCaskill, P. A., Toro, P. A., & Wolfe, S. M. (1998). Homeless and matched housed adolescents: A comparative study of psychopathology. Journal of Clinical and Child Psychology, 27, 306–319.

    McDaniel, J. S., Purcell, D. W., & Farber, E. W. (1997). Severe mental illness and HIV-related medical and neuropsychiatric sequelae. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 311–325.

    McDonald, K. B., & Armstrong, K. B. (2001). De-romanticizing black intergenerational support: The questionable expectations of welfare reform. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 213–223.

    Melfi, C., Croghan, T., Hanna, M., & Robinson, R. (2000). Racial variation in antidepressant treatment in a Medicaid population. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 16–21.

    Milburn, N. G., & Bowman, P. J. (1991). Neighborhood life. In J. S. Jackson (Ed.). Life in black America (pp. 31–45). Newbury Park CA: Sage.

    Mohler, B., & Earls, F. (2001). Trends in adolescent suicide: Misclassification bias? American Journal of Public Health, 91, 150–153.

    Morgenstern, H., & Glazer, W. M. (1993). Identifying risk factors for tardive dyskinesia among chronic outpatients maintained on neuroleptic medications: Results of the Yale tardive dyskinesia study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 723–733.

    Moy, E., & Bartman, B. A. (1995). Physician race and care of minority and medically indigent patients. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1515-1520.

    Mui, A.C., & Burnette, D. (1994). Long-term care service use by frail elders: Is ethnicity a factor? The Gerontologist, 34, 190–198.

    Mundy, P., Robertson, J. M., Greenblatt, M., & Robertson, J. M. (1989). Residential instability in adolescent psychiatric inclients. Journal of the American Academy of Adolescent and Child Psychiatry, 28, 176–181.

    National Center for Health Statistics. (1996). Leading causes of death by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, 1992. (Vital and Health Statistics; PHS Report No. 96–1857). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

    National Research Council. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high risk settings. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

    Neighbors, H. W. (1984). The distribution of psychiatric morbidity in African Americans: A review and suggestions for research. Community Mental Health Journal, 20, 5–18.

    Neighbors, H. W., Jackson, J. S., Campbell, L., & Williams, D. R. (1989). The influence of racial factors on psychiatric diagnosis: A review and suggestions for research. Community Mental Health Journal, 24, 301–311.

    O’Hare, W. P. (1996). A new look at poverty in America. Population Bulletin, 51, 1–48.

    O’Hare, W. P., Pollard, K. M., Mann, T. L., & Kent, M. M. (1991). African Americans in the 1990s. Population Bulletin, 46, 1–40.

    Okwumabua, J. O., Baker, F. M., Wong, S. P., & Pilgram, B. O. (1997). Characteristics of depressive symptoms in elderly urban and rural African American residents. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 52, M241–M246.

    Overall, J. E., Hollister, L. E., Kimbell, I., Jr., & Shelton, J. (1969). Extrinsic factors influencing responses to psychotherapeutic drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 21, 89–94.

    Padgett, D., Struening, E. L., Andrews, H., & Pittman, J. (1995). Predictors of emergency room use by homeless adults in New York City: The predisposing, enabling and need factors. Social Science & Medicine, 41, 547–556.

    Phillips, D. P., & Ruth, T. E. (1993). Adequacy of official suicide statistics for scientific research and public policy. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 23, 307–319.

    Pickering, T. (2000). Depression, race, hypertension, and the heart. Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 2, 410–412.

    Pingitore, D., Snowden, L. R., Sansome, R., & Klinkman, M. (in press). Persons with depression and the treatments they receive: A comparison of primary care physicians and psychiatrists. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine.

    Raskin, A., & Crook, I. (1975). The rater and rating instrument as sources of variance in evaluating drug efficiency. Psychopharmacological Bulletin, 11 , 16–17.

    Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. F., Rae, D. S., Manderscheid, R. W., Locke, B. Z, & Goodwin, F. K. (1993). The de facto US mental and addictive disorders service system. Epidemiological and prospective 1-year prevalence rates of disorders and services. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 85–94.

    Robins, L., & Regier, D. A. (1991). Psychiatric disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. New York: The Free Press.

    Roschelle, A. (1997). No more kin: Exploring race, class, and gender in family networks. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Rosenheck, R., & Fontana, A. (1994). Utilization of mental health services by minority veterans of the Vietnam era. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 685–691.

    Ruiz, D. S. (1995). A demographic and epidemiologic profile of the African American elderly. In D. K. Padgett (Ed.), Handbook of ethnicity, aging, and mental health. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

    Rural Policy Research Institute. (1997). Mapping rural health: The geography of health care and health resources in rural America. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina.

    Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, P. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924.

    Scheffler, R. M., & Miller, A. B. (1989). Demand analysis of mental health service use among ethnic subpopulations. Inquiry, 26, 202–215.

    Schwab-Stone, M., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., Silver, D., Lichtman, J., & Voyce, C. (1999). No safe haven II: The effects of violence exposure on urban youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 359–367.

    Segel, S. P., Bola, J. R., & Watson, M. A. (1996). Race, quality of care, and antipsychotic prescribing practices in psychiatric emergency services. Psychiatric Services, 47, 282–286.

    Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. J., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional models of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18–39.

    Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Dulcan, M. K., Davies, M., Piacentini, J., Schwab-Stone, M. E., Lahey, B. B., Bourdon, K., Jensen, P. S., Bird, H. R., Canino, G., & Regier, D. A. (1996). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC–2.3): Description, accept-ability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA Study. Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865–877.

    Siegel, J. M., Aneshensel, C. S., Taub, B., Cantwell, D. P., & Driscoll, A. K. (1998). Adolescent depressed mood in a multiethnic sample. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 413–427.

    Smith Fahie, V. P. (1998). Utilization of folk/family remedies by community-residing African American elders. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 5, 19–22.

    Snow, L. (1993). Walkin’ over medicine. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Snowden, L. R. (1996). Ethnic minority populations and mental health outcomes. In D. M. Steinwachs, L. M. Flynn, G. S. Norquist, & E. A. Skinner (Eds.), Using client information to improve mental health and substance abuse outcomes. New directions for mental health services, 71 (pp. 79–87). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Snowden, L. R. (1999a). African American folk idiom and mental health services use. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 364–369.

    Snowden, L. R. (1999b). African American service use for mental health problems. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 303–313.

    Snowden, L. R., & Cheung, F. K. (1990). Use of inpatient mental health services by members of ethnic minority groups. American Psychologist, 45, 347–355.

    Snowden, L. R., Hu, T., & Jerrell, J. M. (1995). Emergency care avoidance: Ethnic matching and participation in minority-serving programs. Community Mental Health Journal, 31, 463–473.

    Snowden, L. R., Libby, A., & Thomas, K. (1997). Health-care-related attitudes and utilization among African American women. Women’s Health, 3, 301–314.

    Snowden, L. R., & Thomas, K. (2000). Medicaid and African American outpatient treatment. Mental Health Services Research, 2, 115–120.

    Strakowski, S. M., Hawkins, J. M., Keck, P. E., McElroy, S. L., West, S. A., Bourne, M. L., Sax, K. W., & Tugrul, K. C. (1997). The effects of race and information variance on disagreement between psychiatric emergency service and research diagnoses in first-episode psychosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58, 457–463.

    Sue, S., Fujino, D. C., Hu, L., Takeuchi, D., & Zane, N. (1991). Community mental health services for ethnic minority groups: A test of the cultural responsiveness hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 616–624.

    Sue, S., Zane, N., & Young, K. (1994). Research on psychotherapy on culturally diverse populations. In A. Bergin & S. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th Ed., pp. 783–817). New York: Wiley.

    Sussman, L. K., Robins, L. N., & Earls, F. (1987). Treatment-seeking for depression by black and White Americans. Social Science and Medicine, 24, 187–196.

    Swartz, M. S., Wagner, H. R., Swanson, J. W., Burns, B. J., George, L. K., & Padgett, D. K. (1998). Comparing use of public and private mental health services: The enduring barriers of race and age. Community Mental Health Journal, 34, 133–144.

    Takeuchi, D. T., & Cheung, M. K. (1998). Coercive and voluntary referrals: how ethnic minority adults get into mental health treatment. Ethnicity and Health, 3, 149–158.

    Takeuchi, D. T., Sue, S., & Yeh, M. (1995). Return rates and outcomes from ethnic specific and outcomes from ethnic specific mental health programs in Los Angeles. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 638–643.

    Takayama, J. I., Bergman, A. B., & Connell, F. A. (1994). Children in foster care in the State of Washington: Health care utilization and expenditures. Journal of the American Medical Association, 271, 1850–1855.

    Taylor, R. J., & Chatters, L. M. (1991). Religious life. In J. S. Jackson (Ed.), Life in black America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Teplin, L. A. (1990). The prevalence of severe mental disorder among male urban jail detainees: Comparison with the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. American Journal of Public Health, 80, 663–669.

    Teplin, L. A., Abram, K. M., & McClelland, G. M. (1996). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among incarcerated women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 505–512.

    Thernstrom, S., & Thernstrom, A. (1997). America in black and white. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Treadwell, K. R. H., Flannery-Schroeder, E. C., & Kendall, P.

    C. (1995). Ethnicity and gender in relation to adaptive functioning, diagnostic status, and treatment outcome in children from an anxiety clinic. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 9, 373–384.

    Trierweiler, S. J., Neighbors, H. W., Munday, C., Thompson, S. E., Binion, V. J., & Gomez, J. P. (2000). Clinician attributions associated with diagnosis of schizophrenia in African American and non-African American patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 171–175.

    U.S. Census Bureau. (1998). The black population in the United States: March 1998 (Update). Washington, DC: Author.

    U.S. Census Bureau. (1999a). The black population in the United States: March 1999 (Update). Washington, DC: Author.

    U.S. Census Bureau. (1999b). Statistical abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Author.

    U.S. Census Bureau. (2001a). Overview of race and Hispanic origin: Census 2000 brief.

    U.S. Census Bureau. (2001b). Profiles of general demographic characteristics: 2000 Census of Population and Housing, United States.

    U.S. Census Bureau. (2001c). The black population in the United States: March 2000 (Update) (Report No. PPL-146). Retrieved June 28, 2001, from http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/race/ppl-142.html.

    U.S. Conference of Mayors. (1998). Summary: A status report on hunger and homelessness in American cities—1998. Washington, DC: Author.

    U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1998). The initiative to eliminate racial and ethnic disparities in health.

    U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000a). Healthy people 2010. Rockville, MD: Author.

    U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000b). National vital statistics reports, 48 (11). Rockville, MD: Author.

    Valleni-Basile, L. A., Garrison, C. Z., Waller, J. L., Addy, C. L., McKeown, R. E., Jackson, K. L., & Cuffe, S. P. (1996). Incidence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 898–906.

    Vega, W., & Rumbaut, R. (1991). Ethnic minorities and mental health. Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 351–383.

    Vernez, G. M., Burnam, M. A., McGlynn, E. A., Trude, S., & Mittman, B. (1988). Review of California’s program for the homeless mentally ill disabled (Report No. R3631–CDMH). Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

    Walkup, J. T., McAlpine, D. D., Olfson, M., Labay, L. E., Boyer, C., & Hansell, S. (2000). Patients with schizophrenia at risk for excessive antipsychotic dosing. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 344–348.

    Wang, P. S., Berglund, P., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Recent care of common mental disorders in the United States. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15, 284–292.

    Wells, K. B., Stewart, A., Hays, R. D., Burnam, M. A., Rogers, W., Daniels, M., Berry, S., Greenfield, S., & Ware, J. (1989). The functioning and well-being of depressed patients: Results from the Medical Outcomes Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 262, 914–919.

    Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2000). Race/ethnicity and the 2000 census: Recommendations for African American and other black populations in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1728–1730.

    Williams, D. R. (1998). African American health: The role of the social environment. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Sciences, 75, 300–321.

    Williams, K. E., & Chambless, D. L. (1994). The results of exposure-based treatment in agoraphobia. In S. Friedman (Ed.), Anxiety disorders in African Americans (pp. 149–165). New York: Springer

    Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Yee, A. H., Fairchild, H. H., Weizmann, F., & Wyatt, G. E. (1993). Addressing psychology’s problem with race. American Psychologist, 48, 1132–1140.

    Yeh, M., Takeuchi, D. T., & Sue, S. (1994). Asian American children seen in the mental health system: A comparison of parallel and mainstream outpatient service centers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 5–12.

    Young, A. S., Klap, R., Sherbourne, C. D., & Wells, K. B. (2001). The quality of care for depressive and anxiety disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 472–478.

    Zhang, A. Y., & Snowden, L. R. (1999). Ethnic characteristics of mental disorders in five U.S. communities. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 134–146.

    Ziegler, V. E., & Biggs, J. T. (1977). Tricyclic plasma levels. Effect of age, race, sex, and smoking. Journal of the American Medical Association, 14, (238), 2167–2169.

    Zoellner, L. A., Feeny, N. C., Fitzgibbons, L. A., & Foa, E. B. (1999). Response of African American and Caucasian women to cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 30, 581–595.

    Zylstra, R. G., & Steitz, J. A. (1999). Public knowledge of late-life depression and aging. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 18, 63–76.



    Home  |  Contact Us  |  About Us  |  Awards  |  Privacy Statement  |  Site Map  |  E-mail This Page

    U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
    U.S. Department of
    Health & Human Services
    Office of the Surgeon General
    Office of the
    Surgeon General
    Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
    Substance Abuse and
    Mental Health Services
    Administration

    For other mental health information visit http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/.
    If you have comments or questions regarding this site, please send an email to nmhic-info@samhsa.hhs.gov.