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Developing Cultural Competence in Disaster Mental Health Programs:
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TABLE 1 - 1 Percentage Distribution of the Population |
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Race |
Hispanic/ Latino Origin* |
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Year |
White |
Black/ African American |
American Indian/ Alaska Native** |
Asian and Pacific Islander |
|
1995 |
73.6 |
12.0 |
0.7 |
3.3 |
10.2 |
2000 |
71.4 |
12.2 |
0.7 |
3.9 |
11.8 |
2010 |
67.3 |
12.5 |
0.8 |
4.8 |
14.6 |
2050 |
52.8 |
13.2 |
0.8 |
8.9 |
24.3 |
2100 |
40.3 |
13.0 |
0.7 |
12.6 |
33.3 |
* Persons of Hispanic/Latino origin may be of any
race. Groups listed under “Race” are not of Hispanic origin.
** Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Aleuts.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. (2000).
Projections of the resident population by race, Hispanic origin, and nativity:
Middle series, 1999 to 2100. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.
Culture influences many aspects of our lives—from how we communicate and celebrate to how we perceive the world around us. Culture involves shared customs, values, social rules of behavior, rituals and traditions, and perceptions of human nature and natural events. Elements of culture are learned from others and may be passed down from generation to generation.
Many people equate race and ethnicity with culture; however, the terms “race” and “ethnicity” do not fully define the scope and breadth of culture. Race and ethnicity are indeed prominent elements of culture, but there are important distinctions between these terms. For example, many people think of “race” as a biological category and associate it with visible physical characteristics such as hair and skin color.
Physical features, however, do not reliably differentiate people of different races (DHHS, 2001). For this reason, race is widely used as a social category. Different cultures classify people into racial groups on the basis of a set of characteristics that are socially important (DHHS, 2001). Often, members of certain social or racial groups are treated as inferior or superior or given unequal access to power and other resources (DHHS, 2001).
“Ethnicity” refers to a common heritage of a particular group. Elements of this shared heritage include history, language, rituals, and preferences for music and foods. Ethnicity may overlap with race when race is defined as a social category. For example, because Hispanics are an ethnicity, not a race, ethnic subgroups such as Cubans and Peruvians include people of different races (DHHS, 2001).
“Culture” refers to the shared attributes of a group of people. It is broadly defined as a common heritage or learned set of beliefs, norms, and values (DHHS, 2001). Culture is as applicable to groups of whites, such as Irish Americans or German Americans, as it is to racial and ethnic minorities (DHHS, 2001). People can share a culture, regardless of their race or ethnicity. For example, people who work for a particular organization, people who have a particular physical or mental limitation, or youth in a particular social group may share cultural attributes.
A culture can be defined by characteristics such as:
Culture changes continuously. For example, immigrants to the United States bring with them their own beliefs, norms, and values, but through the process of acculturation gradually learn and adopt selected elements of the dominant culture. An immigrant group may develop its own culture while becoming acculturated. At the same time, the dominant culture may change as a result of its interaction with the immigrant group (DHHS, 2001).
| Did You Know . . . Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity— A Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General (DHHS, 2001) notes that:
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Four racial and ethnic minority groups—African Americans, American Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanic Americans—accounted for approximately 30 percent of the U.S. population in the year 2000 and are expected to account for nearly 40 percent of the U.S. population by 2025 (DHHS, 2001). Although there are important differences among these four groups, there also is broad diversity within each group. In other words, people who find themselves in the same racial or ethnic group—either by census category or through self-identification—do not always have the same culture. Examples follow:
Furthermore, the broad category labels are imprecise (DHHS, 2001). For example, people who are indigenous to the Americas may be called Hispanic if they are from Mexico or American Indian if they are from the United States (DHHS, 2001). In addition, many people in a particular racial or ethnic minority group may identify more closely with other social groups than with the group to which they are assigned by definition (DHHS, 2001). Finally, many people identify with multiple cultures that may be associated with factors such as race, ethnicity, country of origin, primary language, immigration status, age, religion, sexual orientation, employment status, disability, geographic location, or socioeconomic status. Table 1-2 identifies Federal Government categories for race and ethnicity.
Recognizing the limitations of the traditional broad groupings, the U.S. Census Bureau revised the categories used to report race and ethnicity in the 2000 Census. For the first time, individuals could identify with more than one group (U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 2000). The U.S. Census Bureau anticipated that this change would result in approximately 63 categories of racial and ethnic identifications (DHHS, 2001).
Appendix C lists additional resources offering statistical and demographic data on racial and ethnic populations and subpopulations.
TABLE 1 - 2 Federal Government Categories for Race and Ethnicity The U.S. Office of Management and Budget (1997) announced revised standards for Federal data on race and ethnicity. The new categories for race are: American Indian or Alaska Native refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America, including Central America, and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment. Asian refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. Black or African American refers to a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. Hispanic or Latino refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race. Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. White refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. Some Other Race was included for those who identify with one or more races. |
We use many terms to refer to concepts associated with cultural competence and with interactions between and among people of different cultures including “cultural diversity, cultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, multiculturalism, and transcultural services.” Although the differences in the meanings of these terms may be subtle, they are extremely important. For example, the term “cultural awareness” suggests that it may be sufficient for one to be cognizant, observant, and conscious of similarities and differences among cultural groups (Goode et al., 2001).
“Cultural sensitivity,” on the other hand, connotes the ability to empathize with and understand the needs and emotions of persons of one’s own culture as well as those of others and to identify with emotional expressions and the problems, struggles, and joys of someone from another culture (Hernandez and Isaacs, 1998).
The term “cultural competence” suggests a broader concept than “cultural sensitivity” implies. As previously defined in this section, the word “culture” refers to the shared attributes—including beliefs, norms, and values—of a group of people (DHHS, 2001). The word “competence” implies the capacity to function effectively, both at the individual and organizational levels. “Competence” is associated with “culture” to emphasize that being aware of or sensitive to the differences between cultures is not sufficient. Instead, service providers must have the knowledge, skills, attitudes, policies, and structures needed to offer support and care that is responsive and tailored to the needs of culturally diverse population groups.
Many people and organizations have developed definitions of cultural competence. The following definition blends elements of definitions used by SAMHSA (DHHS, 2001), the Health Resources and Services Administration (DHHS), the Office of Minority Health (DHHS, 2000a), and definitions found in the literature (Bazron and Scallet, 1998; Cross et al., 1989; Denboba, 1993; Evans, 1995; Roberts et al.,1990; Taylor et al., 1998):
Cultural competence is a set of values, behaviors, attitudes, and practices within a system, organization, program, or among individuals that enables people to work effectively across cultures. It refers to the ability to honor and respect the beliefs, language, interpersonal styles, and behaviors of individuals and families receiving services, as well as staff who are providing such services. Cultural competence is a dynamic, ongoing, developmental process that requires a long-term commitment and is achieved over time.
Cross and colleagues (1989) note that culturally competent organizations and individuals:
At the individual level, cultural competence requires an understanding of one’s own culture and worldview as well as those of others. It involves an examination of one’s attitudes, values, and beliefs, and the ability to demonstrate values, knowledge, skills, and attributes needed to work sensitively and effectively in cross-cultural situations (Goode et al., 2001).
At the organizational and programmatic levels, cultural competence requires a comprehensive, coordinated plan that cuts across policymaking, infrastructure building, program administration and evaluation, and service delivery. Culturally competent organizations and programs acknowledge and incorporate the importance of culture, assess cross-cultural relations, are aware of dynamics that can result from cultural differences and ethnocentric attitudes, expand cultural knowledge, and adopt services that meet unique cultural needs (DHHS, 2000d).
Cultural competence is not a matter of being politically correct or of assigning one person to handle diversity issues, nor does it mean simply translating materials into other languages. Rather, it is an ongoing process of organizational and individual development that includes learning more about our own and other cultures; altering our thinking about culture on the basis of what we learn; and changing the ways in which we interact with others to reflect an awareness and sensitivity to diverse cultures.
The Cultural Competence Continuum depicted in Figure 1-1 was developed by Cross et al. (1989) for mental health professionals. Today, many other public health practitioners and community-based service providers also find it a useful tool. The continuum assumes that cultural competence is a dynamic process with multiple levels of achievement. It can be used to assess an organization’s or individual’s level of cultural competence, to establish benchmarks, and to measure progress.
Figure 1-1: Cultural Competence Continuum
The continuum includes six stages: cultural destructiveness, cultural incapacity, cultural blindness, cultural pre-competence, cultural competence, and cultural proficiency (Cross et al., 1989).
The negative end of the continuum is characterized by cultural destructiveness. Organizations or individuals in this stage view cultural differences as a problem and participate in activities that purposely attempt to destroy a culture. Examples of destructive actions include denying people of color access to their natural helpers or healers, removing children of color from their families on the basis of race, and risking the well-being of minority individuals by involving them in social or medical experiments without their knowledge or consent. Organizations and individuals at this extreme operate on the assumption that one race is superior and that it should eradicate “lesser” cultures.
Organizations and individuals in the cultural incapacity stage lack the ability to help cultures from diverse communities. Although they do not intentionally seek to cause harm, they believe in the superiority of their own racial or ethnic group and assume a paternalistic posture toward “lesser” groups. They may act as agents of oppression by enforcing racist policies and maintaining stereotypes. Employment practices of organizations in this stage of the continuum are discriminatory.
Cultural blindness is the midpoint of the continuum. Organizations and individuals at this stage believe that color or culture makes no difference and that all people are the same. Individuals at this stage may view themselves as unbiased and believe that they address cultural needs. In fact, people who are culturally blind do not perceive, and therefore cannot benefit from, the valuable differences among diverse groups. Services or programs created by organizations at this stage are virtually useless to address the needs of diverse groups.
Culturally pre-competent organizations and individuals begin to move toward the positive end of the continuum. They realize weaknesses in their attempts to serve various cultures and make some efforts to improve the services offered to diverse populations. Pre-competent organizations hire staff from the cultures they serve, involve people of different cultures on their boards of directors or advisory committees, and provide at least rudimentary training in cultural differences. However, organizations at this stage run the risk of becoming complacent, especially when members believe that the accomplishment of one goal or activity fulfills the obligation to the community. Tokenism is another danger. Organizations sometimes hire one or more workers from a racial or ethnic group and feel that they have done all that is necessary.
Culturally competent organizations and individuals accept and respect differences, and they participate in continuing self-assessment regarding culture. Such organizations continuously expand their cultural knowledge and resources and adopt service models that better meet the needs of minority populations. In addition, they strive to hire unbiased employees, and seek advice and consultation from representatives of the cultures served. They also support their staff members’ comfort levels when working in cross-cultural situations and in understanding the interplay between policy and practice.
Culturally proficient organizations hold diversity of culture in high esteem. They seek to add to the knowledge base of culturally competent practice by conducting research, developing new therapeutic approaches based on culture, and publishing and disseminating the results of demonstration projects. Culturally proficient organizations hire staff members who are specialists in culturally competent practice.
Achieving cultural competence and progressing along the continuum do not happen by chance. Policies and procedures, hiring practices, service delivery, and community outreach must all include the principles of cultural competence. For these reasons, a commitment to cultural competence must permeate an organization before a disaster strikes. If the concepts of cultural competence and proficiency have been integrated into the philosophy, policies, and day-to-day practices of the mental health provider agency, they will be much easier to incorporate into disaster recovery efforts.
REPORT Cultural Competence Necessary from Project Initiation After the Great Flood of 1993 devastated the economy of rural Minnesota, the State developed a program of supportive services, including crisis counseling for rural residents. Ethnic populations affected by the flood included Hispanics, African Americans, Southeast Asians (Vietnamese, Hmong, Laotians), and Somalians. Some of these populations were relatively new to rural Minnesota, and they were not well integrated into the communities. Trust between cultures was tenuous at best, and many of the minority groups were somewhat socially isolated. The crisis counseling project faced barriers of language, culture, and mistrust that had to be overcome in order to provide services. The challenge was difficult. Virtually all coordinators and outreach workers initially hired were white and middle class. While a concerted effort was made to provide culturally competent services once the program got underway, the final project report, with great candor, concluded that success in providing services to the various ethnic populations was spotty. It stated that the project might have been more effective had a focus on cultural competence been integrated into the program from the beginning. Minnesota Final Report, 1994 |
Culture as a source of knowledge, information, and support provides continuity and a process for healing during times of tragedy (DeVries, 1996). Survivors react to and recover from disaster within the context of their individual racial and ethnic backgrounds, cultural viewpoints, life experiences, and values. Culture offers a protective system that is comfortable and reassuring. It defines appropriate behavior and furnishes social support, identity, and a shared vision for recovery. For example, stories, rituals, and legends that are part of a culture’s fabric help people adjust to catastrophic losses by highlighting the mastery of communal trauma and explaining the relationship of individuals to the spiritual. Despite the strengths that culture can provide, responses to disaster also fall on a continuum. Persons from disadvantaged racial and ethnic communities may be more vulnerable to problems associated with preparing for and recovering from disaster than persons of higher socioeconomic status (Fothergill et al., 1999).
Because of the strong role that culture plays in disaster response, disaster mental health services are most effective when survivors receive assistance that is in accord with their cultural beliefs and consistent with their needs (Hernandez and Isaacs, 1998). As disaster mental health service providers seek to become more culturally competent, they must recognize three important social and historical influences that can affect the success of their efforts. These three influences are the importance of community, racism and discrimination, and social and economic inequality.
Disasters affect both individuals and communities. Following a disaster, there may be individual trauma, characterized as “a blow to the psyche that breaks through one’s defenses so suddenly and with such brutal force that one cannot react to it effectively” (DHHS, Rev. ed. in press). There also may be collective trauma—“a blow to the basic tissues of social life that damages the bonds attaching people together and impairs the prevailing sense of community” (DHHS, Rev. ed., in press). Cultural and socioeconomic factors contribute to both individual and community responses to the trauma caused by disaster.
The culture of the community provides the lens through which its members view and interpret the disaster, and the community’s degree of cohesion helps determine the level of social support available to survivors. In other words, a community that is disrupted and fragmented will be able to provide less support than a cohesive community.
A classic example is presented by sociologist Kai Erikson, who studied the impact of the devastating 1972 flood in Buffalo Creek, West Virginia (Erikson, 1976). The flood led to relocation of the entire community. Erikson describes a “loss of community,” in which people lost not only their sense of connection with the locale but also the support of people and institutions. Results of this community’s fragmentation included fear, anger, anxiety, and depression.
Other studies have emphasized positive effects that can result from disaster experiences in communities that perform a protective role and cushion the stress of the disaster (Dynes et al., 1994). Compared with nondisaster-related suffering, which is isolating and private, the suffering of disaster survivors can be collective and public (Dynes et al., 1994). However, devastating disasters can have positive outcomes. They can bring a community closer or reorient its members to new priorities or values (Ursano, Fullerton et al., 1994). Individuals may exhibit courage, selflessness, gratitude, and hope that they may not have shown or felt before the disaster.
Community often is extremely important for racial and ethnic minority groups, and it may dramatically affect their ability to recover from disaster. For example, a racial or ethnic minority community may provide especially strong social support functions for its members, particularly when it is surrounded by a hostile society. However, its smaller size may render it more fragile and more subject to dispersion and destruction after a disaster. Members of some racial and ethnic minority groups, such as refugees, previously have experienced destruction of their social support systems, and the destruction of a second support system may be particularly difficult (Beiser, 1990; Van der Veer, 1995).
REPORT Disaster Projects Confront Distrust Several disaster crisis counseling projects supported by the Federal Government have had to address the distrust of ethnic minority groups and their reluctance to use available resources. For example, following the 1994 California earthquake, the disaster crisis counseling project found that many immigrants’ distrust of government posed a barrier to their use of disaster services. Likewise, some of the survivors of a hurricane in Alabama were immigrants from Asian Communist countries who did not trust any government and were not accustomed to receiving Government assistance. California Final Report, 1995 • Alabama Final Report, 1999 |
Many racial and ethnic minority groups, including African Americans, American Indians, and Chinese and Japanese Americans, have experienced racism, discrimination, or persecution for many years. Both legally sanctioned and more subtle forms of discrimination and racism are an undeniable part of our Nation’s historical fabric. Despite improvements in recent decades, evidence exists that racial discrimination persists in housing rentals and sales, hiring practices, and medical care. Racism also takes the form of demeaning comments, hate crimes, and other violence by institutions or individuals, either intentionally or unintentionally (DHHS, 2001).
As a result of past or present experiences with racism and discrimination, racial and ethnic minority groups may distrust offers of outside assistance at any time, even following a disaster. They may not be accustomed to receiving support and assistance from persons outside of their own group in non-disaster circumstances. Therefore, they may be unfamiliar with the social and cultural mechanisms of receiving assistance and remain outside the network of aid.
Particularly during the “disillusionment phase” of the disaster, when intragroup tensions are typically high, racial and ethnic minority groups can face the brunt of anger and even blame from members of the larger culture. Such psychological assaults and experiences with racism and discrimination can result in increased stress for individuals and groups.
REPORT Damage from Mississippi Tornadoes Unequal In the late 1950s, several tornadoes struck rural Mississippi. The only persons killed were black. A subsequent study found that many people in the black community had great difficulty in coming to terms with this disaster. They did not understand how a just God could discriminate in such a fashion between white and black. Perry and Perry, 1959 |
Poverty disproportionately affects racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, in 1999, 8 percent of whites, 11 percent of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, 23 percent of Hispanic Americans, 24 percent of African Americans, and 26 percent of American Indians and Alaska Natives lived in poverty (DHHS, 2001). Significant socioeconomic differences also exist within racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, although some subgroups of Asian Americans have prospered, others remain at low socioeconomic levels (O’Hare and Felt, 1991).
Social and economic inequality also leads to reduced access to resources, including employment; financial credit; legal rights; and education, health, and mental health services (Blaikie et al., 1994). Poor neighborhoods also have high rates of homelessness, substance abuse, and crime (DHHS, 2001).
Poverty makes people more susceptible than others to harm from disaster and less able to access help (Bolin and Stanford, 1998). Low-income individuals and families typically lose a much larger part of their material assets and suffer more lasting negative effects from disaster than do those with higher incomes (Wisner, 1993). Often, disadvantaged persons live in the least desirable and most hazardous areas of a community, and their homes may be older and not as sound as those in higher income areas. For example, many low-income people live in apartment buildings that contain unreinforced masonry, which is susceptible to damage in a disaster (Bolton et al., 1993).
Although disaster relief activities can help ameliorate some of the damage rendered by a disaster, some groups cannot readily access such services. Negative perceptions derived from pre-disaster experiences may serve as a barrier to seeking care. Lack of familiarity with sources of community support or lack of transportation are common barriers for many immigrants and unwillingness to disclose their immigration status is a major barrier.
Middle-class disaster survivors are more likely than lower-income people—including those from other cultures—to know how to complete forms, communicate adequately, talk to the “right” people, or otherwise maneuver within the system. Thus, they may be more likely to receive aid than survivors with fewer means or those from different cultures (Aptekar, 1990). On the other hand, affluent groups may find it difficult to accept assistance from mental health and social service agencies. They may fear a loss of control and find it humiliating to accept emergency assistance such as clothing, food, loans, and emotional support from disaster workers.
In some instances, people of lower socioeconomic status exhibit strong coping skills in disaster situations because they have seen difficult times before and have survived. In other instances, the loss of what little one had may leave an individual feeling completely hopeless.
REPORT Tornadoes Destroy Homes in Sioux Nation In 1999, tornadoes ravaged the Oglala Sioux Nation in South Dakota. Housing units are scattered throughout this vast reservation; one home may be 10 to 20 miles from the nearest neighbor or community. Many roads on the reservation are unimproved. Only 10 percent to 15 percent of the homes have telephone service. Because of the lack of adequate housing, multiple family units reside in one dwelling. In some situations, 20 family members live in a two-bedroom home with no running water or sewage system. Outhouses are commonplace. South Dakota Application, 1999 |
Survivors’ reactions to and recovery from a disaster are influenced by a number of factors, including:
TABLE 1 - 3 Characteristics of Disasters Researchers have identified several common characteristics of disasters that are particularly important when discussing emotional distress and recovery (Bolin, 1985: DHHS, 2000a, p. 6.). These characteristics are as follows:
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Despite the differences in disasters, communities, and individuals, survivors’ emotional responses to disaster tend to follow a pattern of seven “disaster phases” (National Institute of Mental Health, 1983; DHHS, 2000e):
The characteristics of the disaster, as well as those of the community and its individual residents, affect the duration and nature of the seven phases. The phases do not necessarily move forward in linear fashion; instead, they often overlap and blend together. Furthermore, individuals may experience a given phase in different ways (DHHS, 1999), and different cultural groups may respond differently during these phases. Below are brief descriptions of each phase, including examples of responses of different cultural groups during each phase.
For further information about disaster characteristics and phases, refer to the Training Manual for Mental Health and Human Service Workers in Major Disasters (DHHS, 2000e).
REPORT Disaster Resurfaces Emotional Reactions to Prior Stressors Flooding occurred in Clovis, California, in 1995, when a canal and ponding basins overflowed. Many families, mostly Hmong, who lived near the canal were displaced. The Hmong population is a low-income community with immigrants from Southeast Asia who have a history of war and severe losses. Many were suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome prior to the flood. The flood increased financial stress and anxiety, and exacerbated their existing symptoms. California Final Report, 1995 |
The warning or threat phase occurs with hurricanes, floods, and other disasters for which there is warning hours or days in advance. Lack of warning can make survivors feel vulnerable, unsafe, and fearful of future unpredicted tragedies. The perception that they had no control over protecting themselves or their loved ones can be deeply distressing.
Racial and ethnic groups sometimes differ in the ways in which they receive information about risks and in the credence they place on such information. For example, Hispanics are more likely than non-Hispanics to use social networks for disaster information (Blanchard-Boehm, 1997; Perry and Mushkatel, 1986) and to believe information obtained through these networks (Perry and Lindell, 1991) than are members of other groups. Furthermore, some marginalized communities do not have adequate or functioning warning systems. When disaster warning information is not provided in multiple languages or is not closed-captioned, people who do not understand English or who are deaf or hard of hearing may not receive adequate warning.
The impact phase occurs when the disaster actually strikes. This phase can vary from the slow, low-threat buildup associated with some types of floods to the violent and destructive outcomes associated with tornadoes and explosions. Depending on the characteristics of the disaster, reactions range from confusion, disbelief, and anxiety (particularly if family members are separated) to shock or hysteria.
In the rescue or heroic phase, individuals’ activity levels are typically high and oriented toward rescue operations, survival, and perhaps evacuation. People generally work together to save lives and property; pre-existing tensions between racial and ethnic or cultural groups are set aside. However, if family members are separated, anxiety may be heightened.
During this phase, optimism may reign as the community pulls together and government and volunteer assistance become available. The interactions between relief workers and survivors from different cultures can be very important and can influence people’s long-term perceptions of the disaster relief effort. Perceptions and beliefs about how healing occurs also may influence recovery. Frequently, however, disaster workers who have had no orientation to local cultures and lack sensitivity to them are brought in to help out during this phase. Such workers may exacerbate, rather than mitigate, cultural differences.
During the inventory phase, survivors recognize the limits of help and begin to assess their futures. They become exhausted because of multiple demands, financial pressures, and the stress of relocation or living in a damaged home. Initial optimism may give way to discouragement and fatigue. This also is a time characterized by high levels of grief and loss. Families who lose loved ones will grieve and cope in different ways.
The disillusionment phase occurs when survivors recognize the reality of loss and the limits of outside relief. This phase is characterized by a high level of stress that may be manifested in personally destructive behavior, family discord, and community fragmentation. Obtaining assistance from relief agencies can be extremely difficult, and survivors may feel helpless and angry. Hostility between neighbors and among groups is common, and tensions may erupt among different cultural, racial, and ethnic groups.
The final phase, reconstruction or recovery, may last for years. This phase involves the structural rebuilding of the community as well as the integration of changes occasioned by the disaster into one’s community and one’s life. A common problem is a lack of housing, particularly if the disaster destroyed much of the low-income housing stock. In such situations, the private market typically hinders rebuilding of low- and moderate-income rental units (Fothergill et al., 1999). Therefore, housing shortages and rent increases disproportionately affect racial and ethnic minority groups (Bolin and Stanford, 1991; Peacock and Girard, 1997). It is not unusual for local political issues to create friction and fragmentation in the impacted community during the disparate reconstruction progress and buyouts between neighboring counties.
REPORT Civil Unrest Causes Emotional Problems for Refugees The civil unrest and fires in Los Angeles that came in the wake of the Rodney King verdict affected a community inhabited by many refugees from Central America and Asia. For immigrants who came from war-torn countries, the Los Angeles disturbances reactivated fears and emotions associated with their homeland. Many experienced increased agitation, depression, confusion, and recollections of prior bereavements. California Final Report, 1994 |
Providing culturally competent mental health services to survivors requires action before, during, and after a disaster. The disaster mental health plan, which should be part of a State or community emergency management plan, can help ensure an efficient, coordinated response to the mental health needs of the affected population (DHHS, Rev. ed., in press). These plans specify roles, responsibilities, and relationships among agencies and organizations in responding to a community’s mental health needs following a disaster (DHHS, Rev. ed., in press).
Well-designed disaster mental health plans enhance coordination and minimize chaos, thereby helping to ensure that survivors receive assistance in a timely, helpful, and culturally sensitive manner should a disaster occur. Disaster mental health plans that identify and address diverse needs within a community can save valuable time and avert many problems. In the absence of such planning, disaster relief is disorganized, especially in the immediate aftermath. Confusion and inefficiency can prevail when survivors attempt to gain access to services.
REPORT Disaster Strikes a Highly Diverse Community On January 17, 1994, a major earthquake struck Los Angeles and Ventura Counties. The Northridge earthquake was the largest and most violent to hit an urban area in the United States since the 1906 San Francisco quake. The post-disaster recovery effort provided mental health services to 1.9 million persons, representing myriad ethnic groups, special populations, and lifestyles. The size and scope of the two affected counties, as well as the ethnic diversity of their residents, constituted a challenge to disaster mental health providers. For example, Ventura County is home to many undocumented migrant farm workers, the majority of whom do not speak English and are mistrustful of government at any level. Language and cultural barriers had to be overcome for persons from several Asian cultures as well. The diverse population in the affected areas also included other special populations, such as physically challenged persons and runaway youth, two groups that required special outreach strategies. The disaster mental health program staff recognized from the beginning of the project the need to develop and provide culturally relevant and linguistically appropriate services, covering a multitude of cultures and languages. California Final Report, 1995 |
Successful program planners recognize that creating culturally competent environments requires more than recruiting bilingual and bicultural mental health workers, sponsoring a single diversity management class, sending a few employees to a cultural competence workshop, or hiring a “token” racial or ethnic minority group representative. Rather, cultural competence must be a part of the program values; included in the program’s mission statement; and encouraged in attitudes, policies, and practices at every level.
To develop a culturally competent disaster mental health plan, planners must:
Table 1-4 presents questions that should be addressed in the mental health plan. For further information about disaster mental health planning, refer to Disaster Response and Recovery: A Strategic Guide (DHHS, Rev. ed., in press).
| TABLE 1 - 4 Questions to Address in the Disaster Mental Health Plan |
Community demographic characteristics
Cultural groups
Socioeconomic factors
Mental health resources
Government roles and responsibilities in disaster
Nongovernmental organizations’ roles in disaster
Community partnerships
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