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Risk and Protective Factors and Processes

Kids can walk around trouble if there is some place to walk to and someone to walk with.

-- Ex-gang member, Tito
Quoted in McLaughlin, Irby, & Langman, 1994

The Issue of Risk:

In the past decade, experts in the field of prevention have begun to design programs that increase protective processes and/or decrease risk factors for delinquency and other adolescent problem behaviors. In understanding which youth are at greatest risk for suicidal behaviors (thoughts, threats, attempts) the most important factors that emerge are depression or related illnesses, drug involvement, alcohol use, and aggression. There is a large literature available documenting the risk factors in youth. In reviewing more than 30 years of research across a variety of disciplines, Hawkins & Catalano (1992) identified 19 risk factors that are reliable predictors of adolescent delinquency, violence, substance abuse, teen pregnancy, and school dropout. These factors are presented in the table on the next page:

Adolescent Problem Behaviors
Reprinted with Permission

Channing Bete Prevention Science Programs
http://www.preventionscience.com/ - 800-736-2630

Table 1: Correlation Between Risk Factors and Adolescent Problem Behaviors

Risk Factors
Community
Availability of Drugs  üü
Availability of Firearms  üü
Community Laws and Norms Favorable  üüü
Toward Drug Use, Firearms, and Crime
Media Portrayals of Violence  ü
Transitions and Mobility  üüü
Low Neighborhood Attachment and Community Disorganization  üüü
Extreme Economic Deprivation  üüüüü

Family
Family History of the Problem Behavior  üüüüü
Family Management Problems  üüüüü
Family Conflict  üüüüü
Favorable Parental Attitudes and Involvement in the Problem Behavior

School
Early and Persistent Antisocial Behavior  üüüüü
Academic Failure Beginning in Late Elementary School  üüüüü
Lack of Commitment to School  üüüüü

Individual/Peer
Alienation and Rebelliousness  üüü
Friends Who Engage in the Problem Behavior  üüüüü
Favorable Attitudes Toward the Problem Behavior  üüüü
Early Initiation of the Problem Behavior  üüüüü
Constitutional Factorsüüü

Ages of Highest Risk

National self-report studies indicate that the age of highest risk for the initiation of serious violent behavior is between 15 and 16, and that the risk of initiating violence after age 20 is extremely low. Youth 16 and 17 years of age have the highest rates of participation in serious violent acts. After age 17, participation rates drop significantly, and it is unlikely that persons will become serious violent offenders if they have not initiated such behavior by age 20 (Elliott, 1994).

The Issue of Protection

Research on resilience has added much to our knowledge of protective factors and processes. In the words of noted resilience researcher Dr. Emmy Werner, "Protective buffers...appear to make a more profound impact on the life course of individuals who grow up and overcome adversity than do specific risk factors" (1996). According to Hawkins and Catalano (1992), "Protective factors hold the key to understanding how to reduce those risks and how to encourage positive behavior and social development." Hawkins and Catalano provide the following list of protective factors:

I. Individual Characteristics

Some children are born with characteristics that help protect them against problems as they grow older and are exposed to risk. These include:

• Gender. Given equal exposure to risk, girls are less likely than boys to develop health and behavior problems in adolescence.
• Resilient temperament. Children who adjust to change or recover from disruption easily are more protected from risk.
• Outgoing personality. Children who are outgoing, enjoy being with people, and engage easily with others are more protected.
• Intelligence. Bright children appear to be more protected from risk than are less intelligent children.

II. Healthy Beliefs and Clear Standards

III. Bonding

One of the most effective ways to reduce children's risk of developing problem behaviors is to strengthen their bonds with family members, teachers, and other socially responsible adults. Children living in high-risk environments can be protected from behavior problems by a strong, affectionate relationship with an adult who cares about, and is committed to, the children’s healthy development.

The most critical aspect of this relationship is that the young person has a long-term investment in the relationship and that he/she believes that the relationship is worth protecting. Hawkins and Catalano (1992) have identified three protective processes that build strong bonds between young people and the significant adults in their lives.

• Opportunities for involvement. Strong bonds are built when young people have opportunities to be involved in their families, schools, and communities -- to make a real contribution and feel valued for it.
• Skills for successful involvement. In order for young people to take advantage of the opportunities provided in their families, schools, and communities, they must have the skills to be successful in that involvement. These skills may be social skills, academic skills, or behavioral skills.
• Recognition for involvement. If we want young people to continue to contribute in meaningful ways, they must be recognized and valued for their involvement.

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